Did God write the Bible? – Public School Bible Study.com

The Old Testament, also known as the Hebrew Bible, is a collection of texts that were written over a span of several centuries. These texts were composed by various authors, communities, and traditions, and their compilation reflects the cultural, religious, and historical development of ancient Israel and Judah. Here’s a summary of current scholarly understanding:

1. Timeline of Composition

Earliest Texts: Scholars date the oldest parts of the Old Testament, such as some poetic sections (e.g., the Song of Deborah in Judges 5), to around the 12th–10th centuries BCE.
Core Texts: The Torah (Pentateuch), including Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy, is thought to have reached its final form during the Babylonian exile (6th century BCE) or shortly thereafter. However, its sources (J, E, P, and D) may date back earlier, from the 10th to the 7th centuries BCE.
Prophetic and Historical Books: Texts such as Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Kings reflect events ranging from the 8th to the 6th centuries BCE and were likely written or compiled during and after those events.
Later Writings: Books like Daniel and Chronicles are generally dated to the post-exilic period (5th–2nd centuries BCE), reflecting the Jewish community’s experiences under Persian and Hellenistic rule.

2. Geographic Context

The texts of the Old Testament were primarily composed in:
- Israel and Judah: The northern kingdom of Israel (e.g., Samaria) and the southern kingdom of Judah (e.g., Jerusalem) were central to the production of many texts.
- Babylon: During the Babylonian exile (6th century BCE), Jewish scribes likely wrote or revised significant portions of the Old Testament.
- Persian Empire: After the exile, Jerusalem and other regions under Persian control became centers for the compilation and canonization of the texts.

3. Authorship

The Old Testament does not have singular authorship; it was written by various groups, including:
- Priests and Scribes: Priestly circles contributed to texts like Leviticus and the Priestly source of the Torah.
- Prophets and Their Followers: Books like Isaiah and Jeremiah originated from prophetic figures and their disciples.
- Royal and Court Historians: Texts like Kings and Chronicles were shaped by official record-keepers and historians.
- Wisdom Traditions: Books like Proverbs and Ecclesiastes reflect contributions from sages and wisdom teachers.

4. Language

The majority of the Old Testament was written in Biblical Hebrew, with some portions (e.g., parts of Daniel and Ezra) written in Aramaic.

5. Canonization

The canonization process began during the post-exilic period (5th–2nd centuries BCE) and concluded by the 1st century CE for most Jewish communities.

Sources for Further Reading

“The Old Testament: A Historical and Literary Introduction to the Hebrew Scriptures” by Michael D. Coogan
- Offers a detailed exploration of the historical, cultural, and literary contexts of the Old Testament.
“Who Wrote the Bible?” by Richard Elliott Friedman
- A widely regarded book that delves into the authorship and composition of the Torah.
“Introduction to the Old Testament” by John J. Collins
- Provides an academic overview of the history, themes, and formation of the Old Testament.
HarperCollins Bible Dictionary (Revised Edition) by Mark Allan Powell
- A comprehensive reference for the historical and cultural background of biblical texts.

An Explanation of J, E, P, and D

The “J, E, P, and D” sources refer to the Documentary Hypothesis, a widely studied theory regarding the origins of the Torah (Pentateuch). This hypothesis posits that the first five books of the Old Testament (Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy) are a composite of four main sources, each with distinct characteristics, themes, and language styles. These sources were likely composed at different times by different communities and were later woven together by redactors into a single text. Here’s a breakdown of each source:

1. J (Yahwist) Source

Time Period: Often dated to the 10th century BCE, possibly during the united monarchy or early monarchy period (around the time of David and Solomon).
Key Characteristics:
- Uses the divine name YHWH (often rendered as Yahweh or Jehovah in English) throughout.
- Contains vivid, earthy, and anthropomorphic portrayals of God—for example, God walking in the Garden of Eden (Genesis 3).
- Focuses on the southern kingdom of Judah and emphasizes Judah’s ancestral figures, like Abraham.
- Emphasizes themes of promise and land, especially God’s covenant with Abraham and his descendants.
Example Passages: Genesis 2:4b–4:26 (the second creation story), various patriarchal stories in Genesis, the story of Judah.

2. E (Elohist) Source

Time Period: Often dated to the 9th century BCE, possibly originating in the northern kingdom of Israel.
Key Characteristics:
- Refers to God as Elohim until God reveals His name as YHWH.
- Presents God as more distant, often communicating through dreams, angels, or intermediaries rather than direct interaction.
- Focuses on narratives connected to the northern tribes of Israel, especially figures like Joseph.
- Contains moral and ethical concerns and reflects an interest in prophetic leadership.
Example Passages: Genesis 20 (Abraham and Abimelech), parts of the Joseph story (Genesis 37–50), portions of the Exodus narrative.

3. P (Priestly) Source

Time Period: Likely composed during or after the Babylonian exile (6th century BCE) when priests were central to the Jewish community.
Key Characteristics:
- Highly structured and orderly, with a focus on genealogies, rituals, laws, and worship practices.
- Emphasizes God’s holiness and majesty; God is transcendent and more removed from human actions.
- Uses the name Elohim until Exodus 6, where God reveals His name YHWH to Moses.
- Concerned with cultic matters, such as the tabernacle, sacrifices, priestly duties, and purity laws.
Example Passages: The first creation story (Genesis 1:1–2:3), genealogies throughout Genesis, much of Leviticus, and parts of Exodus and Numbers.

4. D (Deuteronomist) Source

Time Period: Often dated to the 7th century BCE, potentially during the reign of King Josiah of Judah (reign: 640–609 BCE).
Key Characteristics:
- Primarily focused on the book of Deuteronomy and the historical books influenced by its theology (Deuteronomistic History: Joshua, Judges, Samuel, and Kings).
- Emphasizes themes of covenant fidelity, centralizing worship in Jerusalem, and warnings against idolatry.
- Has a strong moral and theological stance, with a focus on rewards for obedience and punishments for disobedience.
- Promotes the idea of a central, unified Israelite worship and a covenant relationship with God based on laws and commandments.
Example Passages: Most of Deuteronomy, with influence seen in the books of Joshua through Kings.

How These Sources Were Compiled

The four sources were likely compiled and edited over centuries by a series of redactors. Scholars theorize that these editors combined the sources into a unified narrative, resulting in overlapping stories (e.g., two creation accounts in Genesis 1 and 2, and two flood accounts in Genesis 6–9). This compilation process reflects the theological and political needs of the post-exilic Jewish community, striving to unify diverse traditions into a coherent scripture.

Significance of the Documentary Hypothesis

The Documentary Hypothesis remains influential because it highlights how ancient Israelites preserved multiple perspectives and theological traditions within their sacred texts. Though the theory has evolved and been challenged over time, especially by more recent models like the supplementary hypothesis (which suggests the Torah began as a single core text with additions), J, E, P, and D provide valuable frameworks for understanding the literary and theological complexity of the Pentateuch.

1. Content Changes and Theological Impact

The process of translation into Greek inevitably introduced variations, interpretations, and sometimes even significant shifts in meaning:

Interpretative Differences:
- The translators often rephrased ambiguous or complex Hebrew phrases, adding their interpretations. For instance, some Messianic prophecies in the Septuagint differ in tone or emphasis compared to the Hebrew text.
- Example: Isaiah 7:14 in the Septuagint uses the Greek word “parthenos” (virgin), while the Hebrew word “almah” more generally means “young woman.” This variation influenced early Christian theology, particularly regarding the Virgin Birth of Jesus.
Addition of Books:
- The Septuagint includes books and expansions not found in the Hebrew Bible, such as Tobit, Judith, Wisdom of Solomon, and 1-2 Maccabees, as well as additions to books like Daniel and Esther. These texts, later termed Apocrypha or Deuterocanonical, were widely used by early Christians.
Rephrased Theology:
- Translators sometimes aligned Jewish theological concepts with Hellenistic ideas. For example, the Septuagint’s rendering of “logos” (word) in relation to creation (e.g., Psalm 33:6) resonated with Greek philosophical concepts and influenced the development of Christian theology, as seen in John’s Gospel (John 1:1).
Standardization:
- The Septuagint became a standard text for Jews living outside Judea, particularly in Alexandria and other Greek-speaking communities, leading to divergences between the Hebrew Masoretic text and the Greek version.

2. Role in the Spread of Judaism

The Septuagint played a critical role in the spread of Judaism among non-Hebrew-speaking populations:

Accessibility:
- Greek was the lingua franca of the Hellenistic world, making the Jewish scriptures accessible to a much broader audience, including non-Jews (Gentiles). This facilitated the growth of Hellenistic Judaism and introduced Jewish monotheism to the Mediterranean world.
Cultural Integration:
- The translation helped integrate Jewish religious ideas into the philosophical and intellectual currents of Greek-speaking societies, fostering dialogue between Jews and Gentiles.
Synagogue Use:
- Greek-speaking Jewish communities, particularly in the diaspora, used the Septuagint in synagogue readings and education. This standardized the faith among Jews who no longer spoke or read Hebrew fluently.

3. Influence on Christianity

The Septuagint became foundational for early Christianity in several ways:

Scripture for the Early Church:
- Early Christians, many of whom spoke Greek, used the Septuagint as their Bible. New Testament writers frequently quoted the Septuagint rather than the Hebrew text, embedding its interpretations into Christian theology.
- Example: Matthew 1:23 cites Isaiah 7:14’s “virgin” prophecy from the Septuagint to support the Virgin Birth of Jesus.
Theological Development:
- Concepts in the Septuagint, such as “logos,” were pivotal in articulating Christian theology in a way that resonated with Hellenistic audiences.
Evangelism Among Gentiles:
- The Septuagint made it easier for Christian missionaries to use Jewish scriptures to explain and justify Jesus’ role as the Messiah to Greek-speaking audiences.

4. Challenges and Jewish Reactions

As Christianity emerged and grew, the Septuagint’s use became a source of tension:

Christian Appropriation:
- Christians claimed the Septuagint as their own, interpreting its texts to support Christian doctrines. This led to many Jews abandoning the Septuagint in favor of the Hebrew Masoretic text.
Alternative Translations:
- In response, Jewish communities developed alternative Greek translations, such as those by Aquila, Symmachus, and Theodotion, to provide readings closer to the Hebrew text and counter Christian interpretations.

5. Legacy

The Septuagint’s influence endures in both Judaism and Christianity:

For Judaism: The Septuagint initially helped spread Jewish ideas but later was seen as too Christianized, leading to its diminished use within Jewish communities.
For Christianity: The Septuagint profoundly shaped Christian theology and remains a key text in many Christian traditions, particularly in the Eastern Orthodox Church.